Modelling early modern human dispersal patterns through the Wallacean Archipelago

Archaeological records from Australia provide the earliest, indirect evidence for maritime crossings by early modern humans anywhere in the world. As the island archipelago of Wallacea has never been connected to the continental landmasses of Sunda in the west (mainland Southeast Asia) or Sahul in the east (Australia and New Guinea), water crossings through this region were essential for the human colonisation of Australia. The archaeological record for human movement in Wallacea is still a work in progress, however, and none of the evidence pre-dates the archaeological record from Sahul. In 1977 the American anthropologist Joseph B. Birdsell suggested two main initial routes from Sunda to Sahul, a northern route with a landing in New Guinea, and a southern route landing in northern Australia. Models of this significant colonisation event have since been suggested, however, there has been little consensus about which model describes the most parsimonious pathway for first landfall in Sahul. Likewise, later movements between islands is still in question. The dearth of sampled islands and sites in Wallacea has made testing movement models against archaeological evidence difficult, if not impossible. This PhD attempted to examine inter-island movements using a three-pronged approach: 1) archaeological survey and excavation of Wallacean sites, combined with review and revision of the archaeological literature, to identify the timings of early human occupation in the region and enlarge the number of archaeological sample points; 2) reconstructing the palaeogeography of the Wallacean archipelago for the likely periods of initial human colonisation, and through this, model island connectivity and develop a model for human movement through the region; and 3) identify proxy records of human movement between islands to provide information on networks of connection between prehistoric island communities, and in doing so test the reliability of the model outcomes. This study provides a much needed up date to Birdsell's model from over 40 years ago, with an innovative use of geographic information systems to digitise and expand upon the reconstructions of palaeo-Wallacea and the differing variables which would have impacted early modern human movements through the region. The resulting reconstructions and models identified a multitude of now-submerged islands throughout Wallacea which would have significantly increased the connectivity between islands in the prehistoric archipelago, produced the first reconstructions of palaeo-hydrology for the region, developed two measures of intervisibility between islands and in applying these calculations to the Wallacean archipelago, identified ca. 65 ka and ca. 45 ka as the periods of likely human arrival with the greatest intervisibility. This study is also the first to apply least-cost modelling techniques to sea travel, enabling the model to be expanded across the Wallacean archipelago for the first time. Models and palaeogeographic reconstructions constructed herein provide overwhelming support for an initial northern route through Wallacea, with a landing on the modern island of Misool, near the Papuan Bird's Head. Extensive archaeological research on islands of the southern route has so far failed to recover any dates which pre-date those for Sahul, and thus support this inference. Human translocations of cuscus (Phalangeridae) throughout Wallacea found good support for a humanly-assisted introduction from Papua to Timor ca. 3ka, supporting movement between these islands by at least the mid-Holocene

A Geological and Spatial Approach to Prehistoric Archaeological Surveys on Small Islands: Case Studies from Maluku Barat Daya, Indonesia

Survei arkeologi sangat penting untuk penemuan dan interpretasi sisa-sisa yang ditinggalkan oleh aktivitas manusia prasejarah. Saat ini penginderaan jarak jauh dan model prediktif telah meningkatkan jangkauan dan keberhasilan survei arkeologi, namun survei pejalan kaki untuk mengembangkan parameter model dan prediksi kebenaran dasar masih penting untuk keberhasilan suatu penemuan. Penelitian ini merupakan hasil survei arkeologi tahun 2017 di Pulau Babar Besar dan Pulau Wetang yang termasuk dalam bagian dari kelompok Kepulauan Babar, Maluku Barat Daya, Indonesia. Tercatat sebanyak 62 situs arkeologi ditemukan di kedua pulau tersebut, tujuh diantaranya merupakan situs lukisan cadas baru yang ditemukan di Pulau Wetang. Hasil survei ini menunjukkan keberhasilan penggunaan peta geologi dan topografi di samping citra satelit dalam mendeteksi daerah prospektif untuk survei. Hasil penelitian ini juga menunjukkan bahwa pemahaman karakteristik geologi daerah yang lebih rinci dan komparatif diperlukan sebelum dilakukan survei jarak jauh yang lebih lanjut di wilayah Maluku Barat Daya, Indonesia.Archaeological surveys are essential to the discovery and interpretation of remains left by past human activities. While remote sensing and predictive models have greatly improved the reach and success of archaeological survey, pedestrian surveys to develop model parameters and ground-truth predictions is still imperative for successful discoveries. Here we present the results of the 2017 archaeological survey of islands Babar Besar and Wetang in the Babar Island Group, Maluku Barat Daya, Indonesia. A total of 62 archaeological sites were recorded between the two islands; seven of which represent new rock art sites on Wetang island. Our survey results indicate the successful use of geological and topographic maps alongside satellite images in detecting prospective regions for survey. Results also indicate however that a more detailed and comparative understanding of the regions geology is required before more advanced forms of remote survey are conducted in the Maluku Barat Daya region

Total evidence phylogeny and evolutionary timescale for Australian faunivorous marsupials (Dasyuromorphia)

Background: The order Dasyuromorphia is a diverse radiation of faunivorous marsupials, comprising >80 modern species in Australia and New Guinea. It includes dasyurids, the numbat (the myrmecobiid Myrmecobius fasciatus) and the recently extinct thylacine (the thylacinid Thylacinus cyncocephalus). There is also a diverse fossil record of dasyuromorphians and "dasyuromorphian-like" taxa known from Australia. We present the first total evidence phylogenetic analyses of the order, based on combined morphological and molecular data (including a novel set of 115 postcranial characters), to resolve relationships and calculate divergence dates. We use this information to analyse the diversification dynamics of modern dasyuromorphians. Results: Our morphology-only analyses are poorly resolved, but our molecular and total evidence analyses confidently resolve most relationships within the order, and are strongly congruent with recent molecular studies. Thylacinidae is the first family to diverge within the order, and there is strong support for four tribes within Dasyuridae (Dasyurini, Phascogalini, Planigalini and Sminthopsini). Among fossil taxa, Ankotarinja and Keeuna do not appear to be members of Dasyuromorphia, whilst Barinya and Mutpuracinus are of uncertain relationships within the order. Divergence dates calculated using total evidence tip-And-node dating are younger than both molecular node-dating and total evidence tip-dating, but appear more congruent with the fossil record and are relatively insensitive to calibration strategy. The tip-And-node divergence dates indicate that Dasyurini, Phascogalini and Sminthopsini began to radiate almost simultaneously during the middle-To-late Miocene (11.5-13.1 MYA; composite 95% HPD: 9.5-15.9 MYA); the median estimates for these divergences are shortly after a drop in global temperatures (the middle Miocene Climatic Transition), and coincide with a faunal turnover event in the mammalian fossil record of Australia. Planigalini radiated much later, during the latest Miocene to earliest Pliocene (6.5 MYA; composite 95% HPD: 4.4-8.9 MYA); the median estimates for these divergences coincide with an increase in grass pollen in the Australian palynological record that suggests the development of more open habitats, which are preferred by modern planigale species. Conclusions: Our results provide a phylogenetic and temporal framework for interpreting the evolution of modern and fossil dasyuromorphians, but future progress will require a much improved fossil record.This research was partially funded by Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (DECRA) DE120100957 awarded by the Australian Research Council to RMDB. Funding was also provided by the UNSW Faculty of Science Dean’s Honours Relocation Scholarship awarded to SK

The Southern Route to Sahul: Modern Human Dispersal and Adaptation in the Pleistocene

In this chapter we examine the evidence for modern human dispersal, early settlement and later adaptations to the southern islands of the Wallacean Archipelago. We discuss the features that distinguish modern human occupation in southern Wallacea during the Pleistocene from those in the northern islands. In this context we examine the location of sites in the landscape, as well as technology and subsistence across this maritime realm between 50,000 and 20,000 years ago. We then look at the changes that occurred in the terminal Pleistocene after ~20,000 years ago. Such changes include an increase in marine resource use and occupation intensity more generally, as well as initial occupation of inland regions and very small islands. Accompanying these changes is the appearance of new maritime technology in the form of shell fishhooks and adzes. Perhaps most remarkable, is the onset of an obsidian exchange network connecting at least three of the southern islands from ~17,000 years ago. These changes coincide with new forms of artistic expression, in both personal ornamentation and rock art. Greater social connectivity during the terminal Pleistocene in the southern islands seems to have ushered in new symbolic concerns

Late Pleistocene/early Holocene maritime interaction in Southeastern Indonesia - Timor Leste

This study analysed over 1000 obsidian stone artefacts excavated from two adjoining shelters at Tron Bon Lei on Alor Island Indonesia using portable XRF. The study showed an unambiguous separation of three different source locations (Groups 1, 2 and 3). Two sources (Group 2 and 3a, b, c) dominate the assemblage numerically. Group 1 and 2 indicate use of a single volcanic formation with a strong match between Group 1 artefacts and artefacts from sites in Timor Leste. Obsidian occurs in the earliest occupation layer in the Alor sites but does not include Group 1 artefacts which occur only after approx. 12,000 cal BP. Currently the geographical location of the Group 1 outcrop is unknown, however, based on the late appearance of the Group 1 artefacts in the Alor sequence it is likely that the location is not on Alor, but rather on another island of the Sunda chain. The dating of Group 1 artefacts in widely spaced sites on the never geographically connected islands of Timor and Alor indicates that maritime interaction between islands began by at least the terminal Pleistocene. The distribution of the obsidian in Tron Bon Lei shelter Pit B shows that there were periods of more intense interaction punctuated by periods when interaction declined or ceased

A review of archaeological dating efforts at cave and rockshelter sites in the Indonesian Archipelago

In the last 35 years Indonesia has seen a substantial increase in the number of dated, cave and rockshelter sites, from 10 to 99. Here we review the published records of cave and rockshelter sites across the country to compile a complete list of dates for initial occupation at each site. All radiocarbon dates are calibrated here for standardization, many of them for the first time in publication. Our results indicate a clear disparity in the distribution of dated archaeological sites across Indonesia, which seem to be mostly influenced by ease of access, international collaboration focus, and the history of prior research success in a region. In addition, our review of the literature revealed a clear lack of standardization in the presentation of radiocarbon dates and their usage in publications. Despite the impressive increase in dating across Indonesia, our review of the literature suggests numerous excavated prehistoric sites in Indonesia remain undated at this time. Studies such as this, and possible others focused on Indonesia’s other archaeological sites, are useful for providing researchers with a dataset for investigations of some of the bigger questions in archaeology in the region

Least-cost pathway models indicate northern human dispersal from Sunda to Sahul

Archaeological records from Australia provide the earliest, indirect evidence for maritime crossings by early modern humans, as the islands to the north-west of the continent (Wallacea) have never been connected to the mainland. Suggested in 1977 by Joseph B. Birdsell, the two main routes from Sunda (mainland Southeast Asia) to Sahul (Australia-New Guinea), still in debate today, are a northern route through Sulawesi with a landing in New Guinea, or a southern route through Bali, Timor and thence landing in northern Australia. Here we construct least-cost pathway models of human dispersal from Sunda to Sahul at 65 ka and 70 ka by extending previous out-of-Africa least-cost models through the digitization of these routes. We recover overwhelming support for a northern route into Sahul, with a landing location on present-day Misool Island. Minimal support is also recovered for the southern route at 70 ka, with a possible crossing to Sahul from eastern Timor. Review of archaeological records on the Wallacean islands crossed by our northern route indicate a dearth of archaeological research in this region. Meanwhile, the comparatively better studied southern islands still lack any archaeological dates comparable to those known for initial occupation in Sunda and Sahul. Based on our model results we suggest Misool Island as the initial landing site for early modern humans on Sahul and recommend a future focus on archaeological fieldwork in the northern Wallacean islands.This research was funded by an Australian Research Council (ARC) Laureate Fellowship awarded to S.O. (FL120100156) and by the ARC Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage (CE170100015)

Talking Dead. New burials from Tron Bon Lei (Alor Island, Indonesia) inform on the evolution of mortuary practices from the terminal Pleistocene to the Holocene in Southeast Asia

Burial elaborations are a human behaviour that, in recent contexts can inform on social diversification, belief systems, and the introduction of new practices resulting from migration or cultural transmission. The study of mortuary practices in Mainland and Island Southeast Asia has revealed complex and diverse treatments of the deceased. This paper contributes to this topic with the description of three new burials excavated in Tron Bon Lei (Alor Island, Indonesia) dated to 7.5, 10, and 12 kya cal BP. In addition to the bioskeletal profiles and palaeohealth observations, we propose the adoption of archaeothanatological methods to characterise burial types in the region. Through the analysis of skeletal element representation, body position, articulation, and grave associations, we provide an example of a holistic approach to mortuary treatments in the Lesser Sunda Islands. Our results provide significant new data for understanding the evolution and diversification of burial practices in Southeast Asia, contributing to a growing body of literature describing prehistoric socio-cultural behaviour in this region

Terminal Pleistocene emergence of maritime interaction networks across Wallacea

The crossing of the Wallacean islands and settlement of Sahul by modern humans over 50,000 years ago, represents the earliest successful seafaring of our species anywhere in the world. Archaeological research throughout this vast island archipelago has recovered evidence for varied patterns in island occupation, with accumulating evidence suggesting a significant change in cultural activities and interaction amongst island communities following the LGM. New forms of technology such as shell fish hooks and adzes appear alongside standardised forms of shell beads, indicating that these technological innovations were accompanied by shared styles of personal ornamentation. Simultaniously, obsidian from a single, off-island source is found in the archaeological assemblages on at least four islands. We explore these implied spheres of interaction across Wallacea, with a focus on the terminal-Pleistocene/early-Holocene cultural materials and customs linking the southeastern Wallacean islands of Alor, Timor, and Kisar, and other parts of greater Wallacea and Near Oceania

Hominin Dispersal and Settlement East of the Huxley's Line: The role of sea level changes, island size, and subsistence behaviour

The thousands of islands east of Huxley’s Line have never formed a single land mass or been connected to Sunda or Sahul. The earliest records of hominins in this area are stone tools recovered from Pleistocene deposits on Flores and Sulawesi. Subsistence by these hominins as well as the later subsistence patterns exhibited by Homo floresiensis suggest that exploitation of marine resources was, at best, rare and opportunistic. Likewise, the fragmentary hominin remains recovered from Late Pleistocene deposits from Callao Cave in the Philippines exploited large game at the expense of marine resources. In contrast, the earliest zooarchaeological records of modern humans are dominated by marine fish and shellfish and include the earliest evidence of pelagic fishing using shell tools, implying complex fish-capture technology. Pleistocene lithic assemblages on these islands are unspecialized, indicating reduction of predominantly locally available stone to produce flakes and irregularly retouched pieces. By the terminal Pleistocene, records of human subsistence on very small islands indicate almost total reliance on marine foods for protein. We propose that strong links exist between subsistence strategies and dispersal throughout Wallacea, with subsistence strategies available to pre-sapiens hominins in the region being a major limiting factor in their dispersal